Jurisprudence and private law

Abstract Breach of contract is economically efficient only when the cost of contract enforcement for the obligor surpasses the resulting benefits, thus the obligor accepts payment to the obligee for the damages, placing him at a position of contract in force to avoid further damages to himself. The preconditions for efficiency in breach of contract requires the sum of damages be less than the real imposed damages and in financial assessment of the damage the personal value of the contract is not calculated in favor of the creditor, sufficing to a criterion only. Some legal criticisms are: neglecting ethical values, reducing planning capacity, elimination of profit for the seller of precious goods, and contradiction with the principle of freedom.
The legal and economic definition of efficient breach of contract, reviewing pertinent criticisms and a comparative study with the Western legal system are among the major achievements of this paper.
Apparently, despite all problems Iran’s legal system has to challenge with to have the theory accepted, thanks to its many advantages efforts should be maintained to pave the ground for translation of this theory into action in Iran. Some solutions to that end, are the following: reinforcing legal system in full compensation for the damages, admitting Pareto efficiency rule, giving priority to social benefits over individual gains, including some economically efficient concepts as prerequisites for realization of economic justice, admitting the theory in view of ethical values, proving its lack of contradiction with specific performance of the contract.

Abstract In this paper, we have first tried to define coma and then compare it with general anesthesia and brain death by resorting to the opinions of the jurists and latest medical findings. Unlike common belief, coma is not a disease; rather, it is a prolonged state of unconsciousness that results from damage to the person’s brain. In this paper, we will investigate the nature of coma and compare and contrast it with similar states of unconsciousness in the science of jurisprudence and law. The most important outcome of this study and the aforesaid comparison and contrast will emerge in the answer to the following question: What state of life is “the person in coma” in? There is an in-depth relation between humans’ life and death on one side and jurisprudence and law on the other side, in the sense that some rules are only applicable to death and the dead person while on the contrary, there are rules that are applicable to the person as long as he is alive and become inapplicable with the passing away of the person. Therefore, a precise examination of the concepts of life and death will be inevitable toward realizing the purpose of this paper.

Abstract According to Iranian legal system, despite the existence of fixed debt in an obligation, pledgee and its waiver, the mortgage contract shall be enforceable and the right of pledgee shall be established on the mortgaged object. This is done without any difference between the two stages of creation and establishment of the right of pledge. Even in the case of immovable mortgage it is obligatory to register the document. On the other hand, in Iranian legal system the principle of transferability of the mortgage – however briefly – has been officially recognized so that conclusion of a mortgage contract and the establishment of the right of pledgee is no obstacle to future transfer of mortgage or pertinent rights by the mortgagor in case it does not violate the rights of the pledgee. The rule of this principle, without special stipulations on establishment of the rights mentioned in the contract such as obligation to register the mortgage, will sometimes raise consequences such as dispute in discerning priority, reference to the superficial contracts containing the date of priority and consequently violating the rights of pledgee as well as legal dispute in courts and probably penal procedures. Whereas in many legal systems across the world, the US legal system for instance, there is a distinction between the two stages of concluding the mortgage contract or a pledge and stipulations for the establishment of the rights of mortgage for either side. In these legal systems, a distinction has been made between movable and immovable mortgage and establishment of the right of pledgee on each case requires finishing certain formalities otherwise, the right of the pledgee will be incomplete and the priority will be with the other party finishing the procedure. The question raised in this paper is this: Is it possible to make a distinction between the two stages in Iranian legal system with respect to the existing jurisprudential laws and the enforceable legal texts?

Abstract Right in Islamic jurisprudence entails two meanings: First, right in its general sense, means property and decree and in its specific sense it means right. The examples for this denotation of right are the right of fatherhood, right of guardianship for the ruler, right of administratorship, right of custody and the like. Although these are interpreted as right in the literature of the jurisprudents, they are all examples of decree. Second, right in its particular sense is vis-à-vis property and decree. Therefore, it has been said that the jurisprudents who put right in front of property and decree, they mean a type of religiously obligatory decree, which is also called religious decree or the decree of the Legislator. However, in cases we consider decree in its general sense, either obligatory or enacted, it is clear that right (like property) is a type of enacted decree. Therefore, decree in its general sense is attributable to its particular meaning (second meaning).
On this basis, when right is compared and contrasted with decree, the denotative meaning of the two is involved and when in jurisprudence, jurists talk about the effects and consequences of right, like the capacity to waiver, and transfer, they mean that right possesses these effects as an enacted decree and its independent rational validity. On the contrary, the obligatory decree lacks such characteristics.
This paper is an attempt to study the relationship between obligatory decree and enacted decree, and as well as the viewpoints of theoreticians at law and the independent viewpoints. Attempts also have been made to discuss the criteria for distinguishing right from decree and the procedure and criteria for judgment when doubt is raised about right and decree. In case of the absence of criteria, what shall be the basis for performance?

Abstract It was after the 1929 Great Recession in the United States that the world economy suffered heavy losses and Iranian officials began paying attention to the bankruptcy of the banks and its highly negative impacts on the national economy. Consequently, the lawmakers came to the conclusion that rules and regulations on bankruptcy of the commercial corporations are not sufficient for verifying bankruptcy of the banks – which are considered commercial corporations in kind. On this basis, the United States has tried to consider certain rules and regulations for bankruptcy of banks, thanks to their role in national economy and their differences from the commercial corporations. The bankruptcy code for banks and financial institutions in the United States is called Resolution Regime. It is the government’s legal framework that resolves a failed bank in an orderly way to prevent the collapse of financial markets and the country’s financial system, to continue key services by the banks and to prevent the burden of bankruptcy on the government and taxpayers.  In Iranian law, the bankruptcy regime of the banks is not a hundred percent apart from the bankruptcy of the corporations. In case of the bankruptcy of a bank, the Trade Law rules and regulations on bankruptcy will be considered as general rules and other monetary and banking rules and regulations will be particular ones. In case of the silence of the particular laws, the general rules and regulations will be applicable in case of the bankruptcy of the banks. In U.S. law, liquidation is the last step to deal with a bankrupt bank, while in Iranian law - since there is no substitute method for liquidation - the bankrupt bank starts liquidation immediately after receiving the order of bankruptcy.

Abstract The issuance and delivery of commercial papers do not mean fulfilment of payments or extinction of previous obligations; rather, it is with the hand-over of the commercial papers that both obligations under the commercial papers are met and the original obligations become extinct. Although commercial papers bear obligation per se, until before payments for commercial papers are made, the criterion for action will be original obligations.
There is, of course, difference of opinion among jurists on this rule, while it has been confirmed in the majority of the legal systems. However, there is another theory stipulating that issuing a commercial paper and handing it over to the creditor suffices for extinction of original obligations. The proponents of this theory believe in the "substitution of commercial papers". Although they accept the fact that a commercial paper means 'commitment to pay' not 'payment per se', they believe that the obligation coming from the commercial paper shall be replaced with the original obligation, suggesting that somehow a shift of obligation takes place.

Abstract The transfer contract of professional soccer player is the most important contract in this sport. According to this contract, the player is committed to play for a certain club within a certain period of time for a specified sum of money. Conclusion and termination of this contract are subject to special international and domestic rules and regulations that are quite distinctive from other contracts. Like a person’s hiring contract, this contract is a binding obligation that will be enforceable after signing of the two parties. The contract parties are the professional player and the sports club that must possess capacity to sign a contract. This contract is of binding obligation, thus it shall be only null and void with the consent of the parties or upon a justifiable excuse. Meanwhile, the contract parties should act based on bona fide. In this research work, we will first review the nature of contracts in Iranian law and then proceed with studying conditions for validity of the contract according to the international and domestic rules and regulations.

Abstract The world today, compared to the past, has undergone several changes. Many of the yesteryear man's usual issues are done quite in a different manner. The procedure of Islamic judgement and arbitration is a part of jurisprudence that has not undergone the necessary changes yet. The question of this paper is: what are the needs to change Islamic juridical procedures and judicial system? Taking into account the religious principles, particularly legitimacy of the judge as well as distinction between arbitration on the divine rights and the people's rights based on jurisprudence, and also, arguing that social rights are distinct from the divine rights, attempts have been made in this research to propose some changes in the juridical procedures which include: setting up of different courts congruent with the nature of the forwarded cases such as individual personal rights, society's rights, and divine rights. The judges dealing with the first two groups of rights are to be elected by the people, while the judges handling the cases related to the divine rights and pertaining issues are to be appointed by the ruler of the Islamic state.

Abstract The role commercial papers play in transactions and economic relations is this that they are appropriate substitutes for cash in payments. Along with easy, fast and safe transfer and turn-over, they guarantee the rights of the owner as well. Realization of this will be possible when obligations of the signatories of the papers are expressed absolutely and clearly, not conditioned to anything else. The prerequisites calling for unconditionality of commercial papers are considered among the fundamentals of this principle, which we have studied in this paper in two sections of "legal requirements" (the need for using commercial papers instead of cash, the need for meeting speed, ease and security in carrying and transfer of commercial papers and the need for protecting the rights of the commercial paper owners) and "jurisprudential requirements" (exigency of protecting property and preventing disruption in economic system).

Abstract Cancellation is reached when both parties have consent over the termination of the contract. This means the end of the contract effects and the resulting commitments. This, however, relates to the future; therefore, it is not like nullification of the contract. It does not have retrospective impact, and consequently it does not affect the pre-cancellation consequences. This point has been neglected by some and in their explanation of rules regarding provisos after cancellation they maintain that all conditions are nullified including attributes, performance and collateral events. Pursuant to this, the Civil Code in Article 246 stipulates that when a contract is terminated by mutual consent, its terms become null and void, whereas rules regarding and effects of each proviso are different and Article 246 shall not be attributable to all of them. This means that the condition of attribute is not within the prerogative of the said article and hence it is not nullified, but also it returns to the initial owner according to the subject of transaction. The condition of collateral events, due to its certain characteristics, is realized immediately after the conclusion of the contract, thus it cannot be nullified or waived either. In the meantime, only the condition of performance, either negative or positive, is nullified due to cancellation although it leaves behind consequences that are analyzable.